Table 1.1

Significant PBI predictors of depressive symptoms

Study	na	Popu-lationb	Mom Care	Mom O-P	Dad Care	Dad O-P
Patton, Coffey,- Posterino, Carlin & Wolfe, 2001	69	clin-C	XXc	X	XXc	X
Carter, Sbrocco, Lewis & Friedman, 2001	55	com-A	X		X	
Shah & Waller, 2000	60	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Stein, Williamson, Birmaher, Brent Kaufman, Dahl et al, 2000	21	clin-C	X	X	X	X
Enns, Cox & Larsen, 2000	138	clin-A	X			X
Duggan, Sham, Minne, Lee & Murray, 1998	34	clin-A	X		X	
Nordahl & Stiles, 1997	41	clin-A	X	X		
Parker, Gladstone, Wilhelm, Mitchell, Hadzi-Pavlovic & Austin, 1997	245	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Kitamura, Sugawara, Sugawara, Toda, et al, 1996	179	com-A	X			X
Rodriguez-Vega, Canas, Bayon & Franco, 1996	60	clin-A	X			
McFarlane, Bellissima & Norman, 1995	801	com-C	X		X	
Oakley-Browne, Joyce, Wells, Bushnell, et-al, 1995	65	clin-A	X			
Parker, Hadzi-Pavlovic, Greenwald, & Weissman, 1995	176	clin-A	X		X	
Rey, 1995	19	clin-C	X	X	X	
Adam, Keller, West, Larose & Goszer, 1994	16	clin-C	X	X	X	X
Martin & Waite, 1994	681	com-C	X	X	XXc	X
Rodriguez-Vega, Franco, Bayon, Canas, et-al, 1993	30	clin-A	X			
Mackinnon, Henderson & Andrews, 1993	922	com-A	XXc	X	XXc	X
Parker & Hadzi-Pavlovic, 1992	65	clin-A	X		X	
Whisman & Kwon, 1992	150	com-A	X	X	X	X
Hickie, Parker, Wilhelm & Tennant, 1991	69	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Boyce, Hickie & Parker, 1991	149	com-A	X			X
Fendrich, Warner & Weissman, 1990	67	com-C	X	X	X	X
Leon & Leon, 1990	30	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Burbach, Kashani & Rosenburg, 1989	12	clin-C	-	-	-	-
Zemore & Rinholm, 1989	95	com-A		X	X	
Birtchnell, 1988	40	clin-A	X	X		
Plantes, Prusoff, Brennan & Parker, 1988	37	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Parker, Kiloh & Hayward, 1987	26	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Richman & Flaherty, 1987	100	com-A		X	X	X
Parker, 1986	78	com-A	X	X	X	X
Howard, 1981	100	clin-C		X	XXc	
Parker, 1979a -- clinical sample:	50	clin-A	X	X	X	
-- community sample:	242	com-A	XXc	X	XXc	X
Parker, 1979b	289	com-A	X		X	
Total studies (out of 35)			31	22	26	19
Community Adult samples (out of 10)			8	6	8	7
Strongest predictor (5 studies report)			3		5	

a n indicates number of participants in smallest experimental group

b Populations:	com-A: Community adult sample	com-C: community child/adolescent sample

clin-A: Clinical adult sample	clin-C: Clinical child/adolescent sample

cXX=significantly stronger relationship w/depression

Table 1.2

Significant PBI predictors of anxious symptoms

Study	na	Popu-lationb	Mom Care	Mom O-P	Dad Care	Dad O-P
Turgeon, O'Connor, Marchand & Freeston, 2002	38	clin-A		X		X
Carter, Sbrocco, Lewis & Friedman, 2001 Caucasian sample:	55	com-A	X	X	X	X
African American sample:	59	com-A	X		X	
Bennet & Stirling, 1998	30	com-A		X		X
Wilborg & Dahl, 1997	45	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Silove, Parker, Hadzi-Pavlovic, Manicavasagar, et al, 1991	78	clin-A	X	XXc	X	XXc
Faravelli, Panichi, Pallanti Paterniti, et al, 1991	32	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Leon & Leon, 1990	30	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Zemore & Rinholm,1989	95	com-A	-	-	-	-
Parker, 1986	78	com-A	X	X	X	X
Parker, 1981b	50	clin-A	X	X	X	X
Parker, 1979b	289	com-A	X	X	X	X
Total samples (out of 12)			9	10	9	10

a n indicates number of participants in smallest experimental group

b Populations:	com-A: Community adult sample	com-C: community child/adolescent sample

clin-A: Clinical adult sample	clin-C: Clinical child/adolescent sample

c XX=significant relationship w/more than 1 diagnosis

Table 1.3

Summary of Cross-Cultural Differences on the PBI

Study	Cultural groups	N's	Results Care Overprotection
Dinh, Sarason & Sarason(1994)	Vietnam born US born	49 124	US born > Vietnam born, mother only	Vietnam born > US born, both parents
Herz & Gullone (1999)	Vietnamese Caucasian (Australian)	118 120	Caucasian > Vietnamese, both parents	Vietnamese > Caucasian, both parents
McCourt & Waller (1995)	Indian girls Caucasian girls	178 158	No differences	Indian > Caucasian, both parents
Ahmad et al. (1994)	Indian girls Caucasian girls	71 115	Caucasian > Indian, mother only	Indian > Caucasian, both parents
Furnham & Husain (1999)	Indian women Caucasian women	55 82	No differences	Indian > Caucasian, both parents
Mujtaba & Furnham (2001)	Women living in Pakistan Pakistani women born in UK Caucasian women	114 118 116	(Women living in Pakistan = Caucasian women in UK) > Pakistani women born in UK, both parents	Pakistani women born in UK > Women living in Pakistan > Caucasian women in UK, both parents
Canetti et al. (1997)	Israeli youth Original norms	847	Israeli youth > Original norms, both parents	Original norms > Israeli youth, both parents
Parker and Lipscombe (1979)	Jewish private school students Non-religious private school students 81 74 Non-religious > Jewish, mother only No differences Greek students (in Aus.) Australian students 125 46 No differences Greek students > Australian students, both parents

Table 4.1

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Age groups	n	Percent

18-29	106	43.1

30-39	63	25.6

40-49	40	16.3

50 and older	37	15.0

(Mean Age = 35.9, SD = 14.65)

Gender	n	Percent

Male	95	38.6

Female	151	61.4

Marital Status	n	Percent

Single/never married	104	42.3

Married	110	44.7

Divorced	13	5.3

Other	19	7.7

Number of Children	n	Percent

0	157	63.8

1	26	10.6

2	41	16.7

3 or more	22	8.9

Table 4.2

Socio-economic Characteristics of the Sample

Education (completed)	n	Percent

Middle School	1	0.4

High School	29	11.8

Trade/Vocational School	7	2.8

College (2 or 4 year)	132	53.7

Graduate School	77	31.3

Occupation	n	Percent

Professional/Technical	125	50.8

Management/Clerical	37	15,0

Skilled/Semi-skilled Labor	14	5.7

Student	46	18.7

Not in labor force	22	8.9

Income	n	Percent

less than $15,000	17	6.9

$15,000 - $24,999	17	6.9

$25,000 - $34,999	21	8.5

$35,000 - $49,999	45	18.3

$50,000 - $64,999	40	16.3

$65,000 - $99,999	45	18.3

$!00,000 or more	59	24.0

Table 4.3

Cultural Characteristics of Sample

Country of birth	n	Percent

People's Republic of China	40	16.3

Taiwan	46	18.7

Hong Kong	38	15.4

United States	99	40.2

Other	23	9.3

Years lived in US	n	Percent

Born in US	99	40.2

0-10 years	30	12.2

11-20 years	63	25.6

21-30 years	30	12.2

more than 30 years	24	9.8

Generation status	n	Percent

1st generation (immigrant)	147	59.8

2nd generation	83	33.7

3rd generation	8	3.3

4th generation	8	3.3

Table 4.4

Sample Characteristics: CBBAP scores

Independence/Interdependence

Domain	Item average Domain vs Total Beliefs Behaviors Beliefs vs. Behaviors M (SD) t (sig) M (SD) M (SD) t (sig)
Total	3.49 (.43)	-		3.46 (.40)	3.52 (.53)	2.16 (.032)*
Family	3.21 (.65)	11.65 (.000)**		2.87 (.67)	3.41 (.72)	15.85 (.000)**
Social	3.76 (.58)	12.15 (.000)**		3.76 (.62)	3.75 (.72)	0.10 (.917)
Work	3.51 (.37)	0.67 (.503)		3.62 (.38)	3.39 (.51)	7.76 (.000)**
Positive Discrepancies
Domain	Total Average Domain vs Total vs Family vs Social M (SD) M (SD) t (sig) t (sig) t (sig)
Total	3.84 (2.37)	.213 (.13)	-	-	-
Family	0.72 (0.82)	.147 (.16)	7.54 (.000)**	-	-
Social	2.09 (1.55)	.352 (.26)	11.42 (.000)**	10.74 (.000)**	-
Work	0.99 (1.13)	.141 (.16)	9.19 (.000)**	0.55 (.581)	11.08 (.000)**
Directional Discrepancies
Domain	Total Average Domain vs Total vs Family vs Social M (SD) M (SD) t (sig) t (sig) t (sig)
Total	2.46 (6.68)	.137 (.37)	-	-	-
Family	-1.43 (2.48)	-.289 (.50)	13.32 (.000)**	-	-
Social	3.49 (4.96)	.586 (.83)	11.74 (.000)**	13.69 (.000)**	-
Work	0.40 (3.15)	.066 (.53)	2.54 (.012)*	7.99 (.000)**	8.56 (.000)**

* Sig. at  = .05	** Sig. at  = .001

Table 4.5

CBBAP – Demographic comparisons

	CBBAP Domain Total Family Social Work	Positive Discrepancies	Directional Discrepancies
Age	r = -.03	r = -.08	r = .03	r = -.02	r = .05	r = .07
Gender	t = -1.01	t = -0.37	t = -1.60	t = -0.26	t = -0.44	t = 1.08
Marital Status	f = 0.76	f = 1.34	f = 2.20	f = 1.91	f = 0.31	f = 0.72
# Children	r = .01	r = -.02	r = .04	r = -.00	r = .07	r = .05
Education	r = .20**	r = .14*	r = .19**	r = .13*	r = -.04	r = -.07
Occupation	f = 1.65	f = 1.70	f = 1.39	f = 1.45	f = 1.68	f = 1.84
Income	r = .18**	r = .17**	r = .15*	r = .09	r = .04	r = .05
Country of Origin	f = 1.51	f = 1.20	f = 1.59	f = 0.80	f = 1.04	f = 0.65
Years in US	r = .04	r = -.01	r = .04	r = .08	r = .19*	r = .06
Generation Status	r = .08	r = .14*	r = .01	r = -.01	r = -.00	r = .04

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001

Table 4.6

Sample Characteristics: Parental Bonding

PBI - Scale Scores
	Current sample Original Sample (Parker et al 1979) Difference M SD M SD t df sig
Mother	Care 28.69 5.80 26.8 not given 5.05 238 .000 Overprotection 15.87 5.70 14.7 “ 3.18 238 .002
Father	Care 26.18 6.74 22.9 “ 7.51 238 .000 Overprotection 14.20 5.22 11.9 “ 6.78 235 .000

PBI – Quadrants

	 Care,  O-P  Care,  O-P  Care,  O-P  Care,  O-P N % N % N % N %
Mother	94	38.2	56	22.8	25	10.2	62	25.2
Father	82	33.3	49	19.9	53	21.5	51	20.7
	Both Parents	Mom Only	Dad Only	Neither Parent
 Care,  O-P	53	21.5	37	15.0	28	11.4	110	44.7
 Care,  O-P	28	11.4	33	13.4	21	8.5	146	59.3

Table 4.7

PBI – Demographic Comparisons

	Care Overprotection Mother Father Mother Father
Age	r = .18**	r = .15*	r = -.21***	r = -.10
Gender	t = 1.10	t = 1.00	t = -1.69	t = -2.26*
Marital Status	f = 2.03	f = 1.46	f = 4.25***	f = 2.23*
# Children	r = .14*	r = .14*	r = -.19**	r = -.11
Education	r = .07	r = .09	r = -.06	r = -.05
Occupation	f = 1.66	f = 1.74	f = 3.06*	f = 2.19
Income	r = .06	r = .15*	r = -.10	r = -.13
Country of Origin	f = 1.14	f = 1.03	f = 1.28	f = 2.24**
Years in US	r = -.10	r = .01	r = .01	r = .05
Generation Status	r = -.01	r = .01	r = .05	r = -.12

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001

Table 4.8

Sample Characteristics: Depression and Distress

Scale	M	SD	Cutoff	N above cutoff	% above cutoff
Beck Depression Inventory	5.28	5.88	10	43	17.5
Chinese Depression Inventory	10.63	10.18	25	30	12.2
History of Depression	0.53	0.50	1	131	53.3
SCL-90-R Global Severity Index	52.16	11.57	65	36	14.6

Table 4.9

Depression and distress: Demographic Comparisons

	Beck Depression Inventory	Chinese Depression Inventory	History of Depression	SCL-90-R Global Severity Index
Age	r = -.10	r = -.20**	r = -.24	r = -.13*
Gender	t = -3.12**	t = -1.21	t = -0.21	t = 0.32
Marital Status	f = 1.62	f = 1.72	f = 3.54***	f = 1.26
# Children	r = -.06	r = -.11	r = -.18**	r = -.12
Education	r = -.26***	r = -.27***	r = -.10	r = -.23***
Occupation	f = 4.23***	f = 4.87***	f = 3.88**	f = 4.86***
Income	r = -.27***	r = -.20***	r = -.10	r = -.26***
Country of Origin	f = 1.58	f = 1.67	f = 1.21	f = 1.51
Years in US	r = -.20*	r = -.18*	r = -.21*	r = -.15
Generation Status	r = -.03	r = -.02	r = -.08	r = -.14*

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001

Table 4.10

Mental Health and Occupation

	n	BDI CDI Dep Hist Distress m (SD) m (SD) m (SD) m (SD)
Professional/Technical	125	3.82(4.42)	8.38(8.64)	.52(.51)	50.07(11.13)
Management/Clerical	37	7.46(6.80)	12.11(11.13)	.62(.49)	57.03(13.02)
Skilled labor	9	7.11(6.09)	15.89(12.84)	.56(.53)	55.67(11.27)
Semi-skilled labor	5	10.40(8.59)	24.40(9.45)	1.00(.00)	65.00(8.16)
Not in work force	22	4.96(4.96)	9.00(7.67)	.18(.39)	47.23(10.49)
Student	46	6.09(6.57)	13.22(11.18)	.63(.49)	53.91(9.84)
f	-	f = 4.23***	f = 4.87***	f = 3.88**	f = 4.86***

***p < .001

Table 4.11

Correlations between depression/distress and PBI

	SCL-90-R Global Severity Index	Beck Depression Inventory	Chinese Depression Inventory	History of Depression
Mother's Care	-.128*	-.228***	-.199***	-.202***
Father's Care	-.170**	-.244***	-.213***	-.113*
Mother's Overprotection	.096	.261***	.192***	.216***
Father's Overprotection	.124*	.204***	.108*	.179**
SCL-90R	-	.586***	.645***	.339***
BDI	-	-	.749***	.229***
CDI	-	-	-	.311***

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001

Table 4.12

Regression Analyses: PBI, Distress and Depression

Regression
	R	R2 Change	F change	Significance
Beck Depression Inv.				
General Distress	.596	.355***	122.84	.000
All PBI Variables	.641	.055***	5.12	.001
Chinese Depression Inv.				
General Distress	.653	.426***	165.38	.000
All PBI Variables	.671	.025*	2.48	.045
History of Depression				
General Distress	.332	.110***	27.56	.000
All PBI Variables	.399	.049*	3.18	.015
Partial Correlations
	Care Overprotection Mother Father Mother Father
BDI	-.208**	-.168*	.258***	.177**
CDI	-.163*	-.125	.157*	.035
Hist Depression	-.159*	-.067	.205**	.150*

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001

Table 4.13

Correlations between CBBAP and PBI

	Care Overprotection Mother Father Mother Father
CBBAP total	-.387***	-.373***	.073	-.002
Beliefs	-.330***	-.308***	.118	-.014
Behaviors	-.365***	-.358***	.026	-.001
Family domain	-.485***	-.455***	.158*	.058
Beliefs	-.430***	-.422***	.202**	.092
Behaviors	-.454***	-.412***	.107	.023
Social Domain	-.154*	-.192**	-.054	-.071
Beliefs	-.095	-.130*	.001	-.085
Behaviors	-.161*	-.191**	-.085	-.044
Work Domain	-.225***	-.177**	.058	.005
Beliefs	-.219***	-.120	.067	-.024
Behaviors	-.163*	-.173**	.011	.015
Positive Discrepancies: Total	.062	.132*	.040	-.048
Family Domain	.024	-.015	-.016	.055
Social Domain	.075	.136*	.029	-.059
Work Domain	-.007	.073	.042	-.058
Directional Discrepancies: Total	-.084	-.037	.152*	-.002
Family Domain	-.081	-.083	.157*	.032
Social Domain	-.065	.067	.087	-.040
Work Domain	-.001	-.091	.103	.044

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001

Table 4.14

Interactions between Culture and Parental Bonds in predicting Depression: Main Comparisons

Mothers	F	Sig.		Fathers	F	Sig.
Care	6.803**	.010		Care	13.288***	.000
Overprotection (OP)	6.090*	.014		Overprotection (OP)	5.654*	.018
CBBAP total	0.849	.358		CBBAP total	1.161	.282
Care X OP	0.736	.392		Care X OP	3.383	.067
Care X CBBAP	3.995*	.047		Care X CBBAP	9.671**	.002
OP X CBBAP	0.130	.718		OP X CBBAP	2.327	.129
Care X OP X CBBAP	2.004	.158		Care X OP X CBBAP	2.299	.131
Care	6.251*	.013		Care	11.574***	.001
Overprotection (OP)	5.190*	.024		Overprotection (OP)	3.108	.079
Positive Discrep. (PD)	2.524	.114		Positive Discrep. (PD)	4.396*	.037
Care X OP	0.610	.436		Care X OP	2.840	.093
Care X PD	0.021	.885		Care X PD	0.343	.559
OP X PD	7.975**	.005		OP X PD	4.160*	.043
Care X OP X PD	0.073	.787		Care X OP X PD	4.218*	.041
Care	2.324	.129		Care	2.689	.102
Overprotection (OP)	6.839**	.010		Overprotection (OP)	4.045*	.046
Directional Discrep. (DD)	0.483	.617		Directional Discrep. (DD)	0.996	.371
Care X OP	1.802	.181		Care X OP	3.103	.080
Care X DD	1.193	.305		Care X DD	0.961	.384
OP X DD	2.995 a	.052		OP X DD	1.352	.261
Care X OP X DD	0.932	.395		Care X OP X DD	0.572	.565

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001	a approaches significance

Table 4.15

Interactions between Culture and Parental Bonds in predicting Depression: Domains

Mothers	F	Sig.		Fathers	F	Sig.
Care	7.394**	.007		Care	10.624***	.001
Overprotection (OP)	6.327*	.013		Overprotection (OP)	6.837**	.010
CBBAP Family	0.921	.338		CBBAP Family	0.556	.456
Care X OP	1.413	.236		Care X OP	4.096*	.044
Care X CBBAP	5.289*	.022		Care X CBBAP	7.749**	.006
OP X CBBAP	0.074	.786		OP X CBBAP	1.887	.171
Care X OP X CBBAP	1.040	.309		Care X OP X CBBAP	2.520	.114
Care	7.381**	.007		Care	14.125***	.000
Overprotection (OP)	4.167*	.042		Overprotection (OP)	5.744*	.017
CBBAP Social	4.103*	.044		CBBAP Social	4.025*	.046
Care X OP	0.400	.528		Care X OP	2.131	.146
Care X CBBAP	5.011*	.026		Care X CBBAP	7.360**	.007
OP X CBBAP	1.765	.185		OP X CBBAP	0.320	.572
Care X OP X CBBAP	0.027	.870		Care X OP X CBBAP	4.444*	.036
Care	6.944**	.009		Care	11.190***	.001
Overprotection (OP)	6.448*	.012		Overprotection (OP)	5.524*	.020
CBBAP Work	1.932	.166		CBBAP Work	1.037	.310
Care X OP	0.977	.324		Care X OP	2.158	.143
Care X CBBAP	8.086**	.005		Care X CBBAP	5.212*	.023
OP X CBBAP	0.012	.912		OP X CBBAP	0.294	.588
Care X OP X CBBAP	1.563	.213		Care X OP X CBBAP	2.031	.155

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001

Table 4.16

Interactions between Culture and Parental Bonds in predicting Depression: Positive Discrepancies

Mothers	F	Sig.		Fathers	F	Sig.
Care	8.360**	.004		Care	11.658***	.001
Overprotection (OP)	5.514*	.020		Overprotection (OP)	4.162*	.043
Pos. Discr. Family (PDF)	0.020	.888		Pos. Discr. Family (PDF)	0.056	.813
Care X OP	1.113	.293		Care X OP	2.133	.146
Care X PDF	0.001	.976		Care X PDF	0.353	.553
OP X PDF	5.772*	.017		OP X PDF	2.671	.104
Care X OP X PDF	2.287	.132		Care X OP X PDF	1.629	.203
Care	6.510*	.011		Care	14.400***	.000
Overprotection (OP)	4.411*	.037		Overprotection (OP)	3.476 a	.064
Pos. Discr. Social (PDS)	2.543	.112		Pos. Discr. Social (PDS)	1.071	.302
Care X OP	1.676	.197		Care X OP	0.544	.462
Care X PDS	0.255	.614		Care X PDS	1.847	.176
OP X PDS	0.608	.437		OP X PDS	0.356	.551
Care X OP X PDS	1.438	.232		Care X OP X PDS	6.655*	.011
Care	5.818*	.017		Care	10.895***	.001
Overprotection (OP)	6.007*	.015		Overprotection (OP)	3.538 a	.061
Pos. Discr. Work (PDW)	1.480	.225		Pos. Discr. Work (PDW)	2.519	.114
Care X OP	0.463	.497		Care X OP	2.914	.089
Care X PDW	0.076	.783		Care X PDW	0.310	.578
OP X PDW	4.704*	.031		OP X PDW	0.816	.367
Care X OP X PDW	0.114	.735		Care X OP X PDW	0.500	.480

* p < .05	** p < .01	***p < .001	a approaches significance

Note: Trend only, approaches but does not reach significance

2004-05-26T15:44:49